List of Contributors xv
About the Editor xix
Preface xxi
1 Biological Roles and Production Technologies Associated with Bovine Glycomacropeptide 1
Shane Feeney, Lokesh Joshi, and Rita M. Hickey
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Biological Properties Associated with Glycomacropeptide 2
1.2.1 Management of Phenylketonuria 2
1.2.2 AntiInfective Properties 4
1.2.3 Prebiotic 5
1.2.4 Immunomodulatory Activities Associated with GMP 6
1.2.4.1 Inflammation and Allergy 6
1.2.4.2 Colitis 7
1.2.5 Satiety 7
1.2.6 Anticarcinogenic 8
1.3 Glycomacropeptide Production 8
1.3.1 Thermal Treatment and Ethanol Precipitation 9
1.3.2 Complexation 9
1.3.3 Aqueous TwoPhase Systems 10
1.3.4 Ultrafiltration 11
1.3.5 Chromatography 12
1.3.5.1 Gel Filtration 12
1.3.5.2 Affinity 12
1.3.5.3 Hydrophobic Interaction 12
1.3.5.4 Ion Exchange 13
1.4 Detection of Glycomacropeptide 15
1.4.1 Chromatography 15
1.4.2 Capillary Electrophoresis 16
1.4.3 SDSPAGE 16
1.4.4 Colorimetric 16
1.4.5 Immunological 16
1.5 Conclusion 17
References 17
2 Meat Proteins as a Potential Source of Bioactive Ingredients for Food and Pharmaceutical Use 29
Carlos Alvarez Garcia and Ismael Marcet Manrique
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 ProteinBased Bioactive Compounds 30
2.2.1 Peptides Generated by Enzymatic Hydrolysis 30
2.2.2 Peptides Generated in Processed Meat 33
2.2.3 Naturally Occurring Biopeptides 35
2.3 Potential Applications 36
2.4 Challenges 37
2.4.1 Technical Challenges 37
2.4.2 Legal Challenges 41
2.4.3 Consumer Challenges 42
2.5 Conclusion 43
References 44
3 Human Gastrointestinal Endogenous Proteins: A Recently Discovered Source of Gut Modulatory Peptides 51
Lakshmi A. Dave
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 A Summary of Current Knowledge Regarding GEPderived Bioactive Peptides 56
3.2.1 In Silico Evidence for the Presence and Release of Bioactive Peptide Motifs from GEP 56
3.2.2 In Silico and In Vitro Data on Novel GEPDerived Bioactive Peptides 57
3.2.3 In Vitro Release of GEPDerived Bioactive Peptides 57
3.2.4 Preliminary In Vivo Evidence for Bioactive Peptides from Porcine GEP 58
3.3 Implications of the Above Findings Regarding GEP as a Source of Bioactive Peptides 58
3.3.1 Classification of Bioactive Peptides 58
3.4 Bioactive Potential of GEP is Comparable to That of Dietary Proteins 59
3.5 The Site of Secretion of GEP Affects its Bioactive Potential 59
3.6 Digestion of GEP may Generate Numerous Peptides with Multiple Bioactivities 60
3.7 Novel Bioactive Peptides from GEP 61
3.7.1 Systemic Effects of Bioactive Peptides from GEP 61
3.7.2 Generation of Bioactive Peptides from GEP in In Vivo Systems 62
3.8 Important Considerations While Predicting the Behaviour of GEPin the Human GIT: Correlating In Vitro and In Vivo Studies 62
3.8.1 Gut Microbiota Influences Generation of Bioactive Peptides 62
3.8.2 Epithelial Cells as a Source of Bioactive Peptides in the GIT 63
3.8.3 Structural Aspects of Proteins/Peptides Governing Digestion and Subsequent Bioactivity 63
3.8.4 Effect of ProteinProtein Interactions and Protein Modifications 64
3.8.5 Safety and Toxicity of GEPDerived Bioactive Peptides 64
3.8.6 Some Important Considerations in the Study of GEP and Dietary ProteinDerived Bioactive Peptides 65
3.9 Conclusion 65
3.10 Future directions 66
References 67
4 Cereal Proteins: Potential Health Applications and Allergenicities 77
Stephen Bleakley
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Major Cereal Grains 77
4.2.1 Maize 77
4.2.2 Wheat 79
4.2.3 Rice 79
4.2.4 Barley 79
4.2.5 Oats 80
4.3 Cereal Proteins 80
4.3.1 Cereal Storage Proteins 80
4.4 Protein Quality 82
4.4.1 Amino Acid Composition 82
4.4.2 Digestibility 83
4.5 Bioactive Peptides 84
4.5.1 Antihypertensive Peptides 84
4.5.2 Anticancer Cereal Peptides 87
4.5.3 Antioxidant Peptides 88
4.5.4 Antidiabetic Peptides 89
4.5.5 AntiInflammatory CerealDerived Peptides 90
4.6 Allergenicity 90
4.6.1 ImmunoglobulinMediated 90
4.6.2 Coeliac Disease 91
4.7 NonProtein Health Applications of Cereals 92
4.8 Conclusion 92
References 93
5 Meat ByProducts: New Insights into Potential Technical and Health Applications 101
Leticia Mora, Fidel ToldraReig, Milagro Reig, and Fidel Toldra
5.1 Introduction 101
5.2 Meat ByProducts 102
5.3 Technical Applications of Meat ByProducts 102
5.3.1 Use of Meat ByProducts as Food Ingredients and Processing Aids 102
5.3.2 Use of Meat ByProducts as Feed and Pet Food 104
5.3.3 Use of Meat ByProducts as Fertilisers 105
5.3.4 Use of Meat ByProducts as Plastics and Leather Products 105
5.3.5 Use of Meat ByProducts as an Energy Source 105
5.4 HealthRelated Applications of Meat ByProducts 105
5.4.1 Bioactive Peptides 105
5.4.2 Biomedical Applications of Meat ByProducts 110
5.5 Conclusion 110
References 110
6 Potential Applications of PlantDerived Proteins in the Food Industry 117
Tomas Lafarga
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 PlantDerived Proteins: Sources and Composition 118
6.3 Bioactive Peptides Generated from Fruits and Vegetables 122
6.3.1 Bioactive Peptides and Metabolic Syndrome 124
6.3.2 Fruit and VegetableDerived Peptides with Antioxidant Properties 126
6.3.3 Other Bioactivities 127
6.4 Technofunctional Properties 127
6.4.1 Solubility of PlantDerived Proteins 128
6.4.2 Gelling Properties 128
6.4.3 Emulsifying Properties 129
6.4.4 Foaming Properties 130
6.5 Other Applications 130
Acknowledgements 132
References 132
7 Seaweed Proteins and Applications in Animal Feed 139
Marco GarciaVaquero
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Macroalgae as a Source of Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids 140
7.3 Seaweeds and MacroalgalDerived Products in Animal Feed 142
7.3.1 Macroalgae in the Feed of Aquaculture Animals (Shrimp and Fish) 142
7.3.2 Macroalgae in the Feed of Monogastric Animals (Poultry, Swine,Equine, and Leporine) 146
7.3.3 Macroalgae in the Feed of Ruminants (Small and Large) 150
7.3.4 Macroalgae in Pet Food (Canine and Feline Animals) 152
7.4 Challenges Concerning the Use of Macroalgae in Animal Feed 153
7.4.1 Legislation on the Use of Macroalgal and SeaweedDerived Products in Animal Feed 153
7.4.2 Sustainability of Seaweed Supply for Use in Animal Feed 155
Acknowledgements 155
References 156
8 Marine ByProducts as a Source of Proteins for Potential Food, Pharma,and Agricultural Feed Use 163
Maria Hayes
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Biological Activities of MarineDerived Proteins 164
8.2.1 AngiotensinConverting Enzyme Inhibition (ACE1) 164
8.2.2 Structure of Peptides Important in the Inhibition of Enzymes Related to the Development of Type 2 Diabetes 165
8.3 Fish Protein Hydrolysates 166
8.4 Fish Blood Proteins 168
8.4.1 Preparation of Fish Plasma from Salmon 168
8.4.2 Concentration of Fish Plasma from Salmon 168
8.4.3 Protease Inhibitors from Fish Blood 170
8.4.4 Clotting Agents from Fish Blood 170
8.4.5 Salmon Blood Protein Used in Clotting Bandage Manufacture 171
8.4.6 Potential Applications 171
8.5 Fish Testes 172
8.6 Fish Collagen and Gelatine 172
8.6.1 Fish Collagen Hydrolysates 173
8.7 Stickwater Proteins Recovered using Membrane Filtration 174
8.8 Functional Applications of ByProduct Protein Hydrolysates 174
8.8.1 Solubility 177
8.8.2 Water Holding Capacity 177
8.8.3 Oil Absorbing Capacity 177
8.8.4 Emulsifying Properties 177
8.8.5 Bioavailability of FishDerived Hydrolysates and Peptides 177
8.9 Challenges and Conclusions 178
References 178
9 Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility, and Nutritional Measurement of Proteins 183
Maria Hayes
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Measurement of Protein Content in Foods 184
9.3 Bioaccessibility, Bioavailability, and Bioactivity of Proteins 184
9.4 Protein Hydrolysates 185
9.5 In Vitro Models 186
9.6 INFOGEST Method 187
9.6.1 Multifactorial In Vitro Bioaccessibility Models: The TNO Gastrointestinal Model (TIM) 187
9.6.2 Transport Coefficient 188
9.7 Cell Culture Models 189
9.7.1 Transcytosis Assays Using Human Cerebral Microvascular Endothelial Cell Line (hCMEC/D3) 189
9.7.2 Bioactivities of Protein Breakdown Products Bioactive Peptides 189
9.7.3 Effects on Diseases Linked to Development of Metabolic Syndrome 190
9.7.4 AntiInflammatory Peptides 190
9.7.5 Antioxidant Activities 190
9.7.6 Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) Method for Protein Evaluation 191
9.7.7 Digestible Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) Method for Protein Evaluation 191
9.8 Conclusion 192
References 192
10 Protein from Vegetable Sources: A Focus on Pea Protein 197
Catherine LefrancMillot and Virginie TeichmanDubois
10.1 Introduction 197
10.2 The Advantages of Leguminous Plants 198
10.2.1 Sustainable Vegetable Protein Crops 198
10.2.2 Cultivation of Peas and Composition of Seeds 198
10.2.3 Processing of Pea Crops and Proteins Obtained from Processing 199
10.3 Quality of Pea Protein 200
10.3.1 Global Composition of the Pea Seed 200
10.3.2 Digestibility of Pea Protein 201
10.3.3 Amino Acid Composition of Pea Protein 201
10.3.4 Antinutritional Factors and Toxicity 202
10.3.5 Allergenicity 202
10.4 Health Potential of Pea Proteins 203
10.4.1 Food Intake, Satiety, and Weight Management 203
10.4.2 Impact on Cholesterol 204
10.4.3 Blood Pressure Preventive Impact on Hypertension 204
10.4.4 Physical Activity, Muscle Repair, and Anabolism 205
10.5 Applications of Pea Protein in the Human Food Industry 205
10.5.1 Savoury and Dairy Markets: From a Hidden Use of Plant Proteinsto Plant Proteins in the Spotlight 205
10.5.1.1 Partial Substitution of Animal Proteins in Food Products 205
10.5.1.2 Higher Value Markets: Animal Protein Alternatives 206
10.5.2 Baking: Driven by the Hunt for Protein Fortification and GlutenFree Ingredients 208
10.5.2.1 Protein Fortification: Pea Protein as a Nutritional and Technical Substitute Complement for Wheat Protein 208
10.5.2.2 GlutenFree Products 210
10.5.3 Specialised Nutrition 210
10.5.3.1 Partial Substitution of Dairy Proteins 210
10.5.3.2 Higher Value Plant-Based Protein Markets (Weight Management and Sports Nutrition) 211
10.5.3.3 Future of PlantBased Specialised Nutrition Products:Senior Nutrition 212
10.6 Conclusion 212
Conflict of interest 212
Acknowledgements 212
References 213
11 Seaweeds as a Source of Proteins for Use in Pharmaceuticals and HighValue Applications 217
Chigozie Louis Okolie, Beth Mason, and Alan T. Critchley
11.1 Introduction 217
11.2 Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids 218
11.2.1 Macroalgal Proteins 218
11.2.2 Macroalgal Peptides 222
11.2.3 Macroalgal Amino Acids 222
11.3 Extraction of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids 223
11.4 Bioactivities of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 226
11.4.1 Antioxidant Properties of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 226
11.4.2 Antihypertensive Properties of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 227
11.4.3 Antiproliferative Properties of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids 228
11.4.4 Antimicrobial Properties of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 229
11.4.5 Antidiabetic Properties of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 229
11.5 Industrial Applications of Macroalgal Proteins, Peptides,and Amino Acids 229
11.6 Future Directions 233
Acknowledgements 233
References 233
12 Microalgal Bioactive Compounds Including Protein, Peptides,and Pigments: Applications, Opportunities, and Challenges During Biorefinery Processes 239
Maria Hayes, Leen Bastiaens, Luisa Gouveia, Spyros Gkelis, Hanne Skomedal,Kari Skjanes, Patrick Murray, Marco Garcia-Vaquero, Muge Isleten Hosoglu, John Dodd,Despoina Konstantinou, Ivo Safarik, Graziella Chini Zittelli, Vytas Rimkus, Victria del Pino, Koenraad Muylaert, Christine Edwards, Morten Laake, Joana Gabriela Laranjeira da Silva, Hugo Pereira, and Joana Abelho
12.1 Introduction 239
12.2 Cultivation of Microalgae 240
12.3 Biorefinery of Microalgae 241
12.4 Microalgae as a Source of Protein 244
12.5 Microalgae as a Source of Pigments 244
12.6 Legislation Governing Use of Microalgae in Europe 245
12.6.1 Nutrition Claims 246
12.6.2 Health Claims 246
12.6.3 Additive Claims 247
12.6.3.1 Feed 247
12.6.3.2 Food 247
12.6.4 Novel Food Claims 248
12.7 Advantages of Microalgal Use 248
12.7.1 Potential Applications and Uses in the Vegetarian and Vegan Foods Arena 249
12.7.2 Microalgal Products on the Market 250
12.8 Conclusion 252
References 253
13 Current and Future Trends in Protein Use and Consumption 257
Maria Hayes
13.1 Introduction 257
13.2 LandBased Plant Proteins 257
13.3 Cereal Proteins 258
13.4 Rice, Corn, and Sorghum Proteins 259
13.5 Soy Protein 259
13.6 Pulses 260
13.7 Nut and Tuber Proteins 260
13.8 Insect Protein 261
13.9 Fungal and Microbial Protein 261
13.10 Algal Proteins 261
13.10.1 Microalgae Protein 261
13.10.2 Macroalgae (Seaweed) Protein 262
13.11 Proteins from Animals and Animal ByProducts 263
13.12 Future Protein Demands 264
13.13 Conclusion 265
References 265
14 Allergenicity of Food Proteins 269
Maria Hayes
14.1 Introduction 269
14.2 What is Human Allergy to Protein? 269
14.3 Types of Food Protein Allergens 271
14.3.1 Plant Food Allergens 274
14.3.2 Milk Protein Allergic Reactions 274
14.3.3 Shellfish Allergy 275
14.3.4 Fish Allergy 275
14.3.5 Peanut Allergy 275
14.4 Protein Processing and Allergy 276
14.5 Management of Protein Allergy 277
14.6 Conclusion 277
References 277
15 Industrial Processing of Proteins 281
Maria Hayes
15.1 Introduction 281
15.2 Processing of Dairy Proteins 281
15.3 Membrane Technologies 282
15.4 PressureDriven Membrane Processes 282
15.5 Ultrafiltration and Diafiltration in the Production of Pharmaceutical Proteins 283
15.6 Extraction of Proteins from Algae 283
15.7 Enzyme Use for Protein Extraction from Algae 284
15.8 Novel Extraction Methods 284
15.8.1 Pulsed Electric Field 284
15.8.2 MicrowaveAssisted Extraction 285
15.8.3 Ultrasound Treatment 285
15.8.4 Application of Membrane Technologies to Macroalgae 285
15.8.5 Application of Membrane Technologies in the Dairy Industry 285
15.9 Novel Proteins 286
15.9.1 Extraction of Proteins from Insects 286
15.9.2 Fish Wastewater Proteins 286
15.9.3 Characterisation of Fish Processing Wastewater Proteins Methods 287
15.10 Conclusion 288
References 288
16 The Role of Immunoglobulins from Bovine Colostrum and Milk in Human Health Promotion 291
Shane Feeney, Sinead T. Morrin, Lokesh Joshi, and Rita M. Hickey
16.1 Introduction 291
16.2 Digestion of Immunoglobulins 293
16.3 Applications and Functionality of Immunoglobulins 294
16.3.1 Protection against Infections 294
16.3.1.1 Escherichia coli 294
16.3.1.2 Helicobacter pylori 295
16.3.1.3 Clostridium difficile 296
16.3.1.4 Shigella 297
16.3.1.5 Cryptosporidium 297
16.3.1.6 Streptococci 298
16.3.1.7 Rotavirus 298
16.3.1.8 Respiratory Syncytial Virus 299
16.3.1.9 Human Herpes Virus 299
16.3.2 Other Health Benefits 299
16.4 Isolation of Immunoglobulins 300
16.5 Detection of Immunoglobulins 302
16.6 Effect of Processing on Immunoglobulins 303
16.7 Conclusion 304
References 304
Index 315
