InhaltsangabeINTRODUCTION XRAY DIFFRACTION PRINCIPLES Introduction Beam Coherence Specific Properties of Different Sources: Laboratory vs Synchrotron vs FEL FOCUSING OF X-RAYS Beam Propagation and Modeling Focusing Principles Available for the Hard XRay Regime Clasic Microfocusing Devices Practical Issues SCATTERING EXPERIMENTS USING NANOBEAMS From the Ensemble Average Approach Towards the Single Nanostructure Study Diffraction from Single Nanostructures Scanning XRay Diffraction Microscopy Other Types of Contrast Local XRay Probe Experiments from Organic Samples Local XRay Probe Experiments from Biological Samples NANOBEAM DIFFRACTION SETUPS Beam Positioning on the Nanoscale Stability Issues: Maintaining the Spot on the Sample During Scanning Angles, Vibrations Active Systems to Maintain the Beam Position on the Sample Constant Restriction of Different Setups Detector Issues: Resolution in Real and Reciprocal Space, Dynamic Range, Time Resolution SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES USING FOCUSED BEAMS Micro/NanoEXAFS, XANES. Fluorescence A Side Glance on Soft XRay Applications COHERENT DIFFRACTION More on Coherence Properties of Focused XRay Beams The Use of Phase Retrieval Instead of Modeling Approaches Different Retrieval Algorithms Shape Determination of Single Structures (Retrieving the Modulus of Electron Density) Strain Determination (Retrieving the Phase of Electron Density) Fresnel Coherent Diffractive Imaging Holographic Approaches (Using a Reference Wave Instead of Numerical Phase Retrieval) Ptychography (For Extended Objects with Nanoscale Structure) Particular Advantages and Problems when Using Coherent Diffraction Imaging in the Bragg Case THE POTENTIAL AND THE LIMITS OF THE METHOD Limits in Beam Size Limits in Intensity/Brilliance Resolution Limits in Real and Reciprocal Space Combinations with Other Local Probe Techniques FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Detector Developments Beamlines at Third Generation Synchrotron Sources The Role of Free Electron Lasers

Julian Stangl is working on the investigation of semiconductor nanostructures using x-ray scattering at Johannes Kepler University in Linz, Austria, where he also obtained his academic degrees. He has performed numerous experiments at synchrotron sources throughout Europe, and is developing nanobeam diffraction in collaboration with the European Synchrotron radiation facility in Grenoble, France. His received several scientific awards, including the Erich Schmid price of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Cristian Mocuta is presently working at the French Synchrotron Facility, the 'Synchrotron SOLEIL' and is in charge of the microbeam approaches and their development, for diffraction (µXRD) but also complementary analysis by fluorescence and absorption spectrosopies (µ-XRF and/or µ-XAS). His scientific interest resides in the study of the properties of materials at local scale (µm and below) using mostly x-ray diffraction technique. He obtained his academic degrees at the Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble, France, then joined as a scientist the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) where he was involved in the development of a micro- / nano-diffraction setup. Virginie Chamard is working on methodological developments of lens-less microscopy techniques at the Fresnel Institute in Marseille (France). Her concern is the imaging of nanocrystal structural properties at the local scale based on the inversion of intensity patterns obtained with coherent x-ray beams. After her academic degrees at the Grenoble University, she had some experiences at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and in Germany. Her CNRS position allowed her to successively work with different groups in France, in Grenoble and Marseille and to develop collaborations in the field of coherent x-ray scattering. Dina Carbone is currently working on the investigation of nanostructures using X-ray scattering techniques. After obtaining her degree at the Max-Plank-Institute for Metal-Research and the University of Stuttgart, Germany, she has started to work at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, where she is now contributing, as beamline scientist, to the development of nano-beam methods and their application in material science.

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