List of Contributors xiii
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
List of Abbreviations/Acronyms xxi
Part I BECCS Technologies 1
1 Understanding Negative Emissions From BECCS 3
Clair Gough, Sarah Mander, Patricia Thornley, Amanda LeaLangton and Naomi Vaughan
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 ClimateChange Mitigation 4
1.3 Negative Emissions Technologies 7
1.4 Why BECCS? 8
1.5 Structure of the Book 10
1.5.1 Part I: BECCS Technologies 10
1.5.2 Part II: BECCS System Assessments 12
1.5.3 Part III: BECCS in the Energy System 13
1.5.4 Part IV: Summary and Conclusions 14
References 14
2 The Supply of Biomass for Bioenergy Systems 17
Andrew Welfle and Raphael Slade
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Biomass Resource Demand 18
2.3 Resource Demand for BECCS Technologies 18
2.4 Forecasting the Availability of Biomass Resources 19
2.4.1 Modelling NonRenewable Resources 20
2.4.2 Modelling Renewable Resources 21
2.4.2.1 Biomass Resource Modelling 21
2.4.3 Modelling Approaches BottomUp versus TopDown 23
2.5 Methods for Forecasting the Availability of Energy Crop Resources 24
2.6 Forecasting the Availability of Wastes and Residues From Ongoing Processes 25
2.7 Forecasting the Availability of Forestry Resources 26
2.8 Forecasting the Availability of Waste Resources 27
2.9 Biomass Resource Availability 28
2.10 Variability in Biomass Resource Forecasts 31
2.11 Biomass Supply and Demand Regions, and Key Trade Flows 33
2.11.1 Trade Hub Europe 33
2.11.2 Bioethanol Key Global Trade Flows 34
2.11.3 Biodiesel Key Global Trade Flows 34
2.11.4 Wood Pellets Key Global Trade Flows 35
2.11.5 Wood Chip Key Global Trade Flows 35
2.12 Global Biomass Trade Limitations and Uncertainty 36
2.12.1 Technical Barriers 36
2.12.2 Economic and Trade Barriers 36
2.12.3 Logistical Barriers 37
2.12.4 Regulatory Barriers 37
2.12.5 Geopolitical Barriers 38
2.13 Sustainability of Global Biomass Resource Production 38
2.13.1 Potential LandUse Change Impacts 38
2.13.2 The Land for Food versus Land for Energy Question 39
2.13.3 Potential Social Impacts 39
2.13.4 Potential Ecosystem and Biodiversity Impacts 40
2.13.5 Potential Water Impacts 40
2.13.6 Potential AirQuality Impacts 41
2.14 Conclusions Biomass Resource Potential and BECCS 41
References 42
3 Postcombustion and Oxycombustion Technologies 47
Karen N. Finney, Hannah Chalmers, Mathieu Lucquiaud, Juan Riaza, János Szuhánszki and Bill Buschle
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Air Firing with Postcombustion Capture 48
3.2.1 Wet Scrubbing Technologies: SolventBased Capture Using Chemical Absorption 49
3.2.1.1 AmineBased Capture 50
3.2.1.2 Steam Extraction for Solvent Regeneration 51
3.2.2 Membrane Separation 51
3.2.3 Brief Overview of Other Separation Methods 52
3.3 OxyFuel Combustion 52
3.3.1 OxyCombustion of Biomass Using Flue Gas Recirculation 53
3.3.2 EnrichedAir Combustion 54
3.4 Challenges Associated with Biomass Utilisation Under BECCS Operating Conditions 55
3.4.1 Impacts of Biomass Trace Elements on Postcombustion Capture Performance 55
3.4.1.1 Alkali Metals 55
3.4.1.2 Transition Metals 56
3.4.1.3 Acidic Elements 57
3.4.1.4 Particulate Matter 57
3.4.1.5 BiomassSpecific Solvents for Postcombustion BECCS 57
3.4.2 Biomass Combustion Challenges for OxyFuel Capture 58
3.4.2.1 Fuel Milling 59
3.4.2.2 Flame Temperature 59
3.4.2.3 Heat Transfer 59
3.4.2.4 Particle Heating, Ignition and Flame Propagation 59
3.4.2.5 Burnout 60
3.4.2.6 Emissions 60
3.4.2.7 Corrosion 60
3.5 Summary and Conclusions: Synopsis of Technical Knowledge and Assessment of Deployment Potential 61
References 63
4 Precombustion Technologies 67
Amanda LeaLangton and Gordon Andrews
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) 68
4.3 Gasification of Solid Fuels 69
4.4 Carbon Dioxide Separation Technologies 76
4.4.1 Physical Absorption 76
4.4.2 Adsorption Processes 77
4.4.3 Clathrate Hydrates 77
4.4.4 Membrane Technologies 77
4.4.5 Cryogenic Separation 78
4.4.6 Postcombustion Chilled Ammonia 78
4.5 Chemical Looping Processes 78
4.6 Existing Schemes 79
4.7 Modelling of IGCC Plant Thermal Efficiency With and Without
Precombustion CCS 80
4.8 Summary and Research Challenges 85
References 87
5 Technoeconomics of Biomassbased Power Generation with CCS Technologies for Deployment in 2050 93
Amit Bhave, Paul Fennell, Niall Mac Dowell, Nilay Shah and Richard H.S. Taylor
5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Case Study Analysis 101
Acknowledgements 113
References 113
Part II BECCS System Assessments 115
6 Life Cycle Assessment 117
Temitope Falano and Patricia Thornley
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Rationale for SupplyChain LifeCycle Assessment 117
6.3 Variability in LifeCycle Assessment of Bioenergy Systems 120
6.3.1 Variability Related to Scope of System 120
6.3.1.1 LandUse Emissions 120
6.3.1.2 LandUse Change Emissions 121
6.3.1.3 Indirect LandUse Change Emissions 121
6.3.2 Variability Related to Methodology 122
6.3.3 Variability Related to System Definition 122
6.3.4 Variability Related to Assumptions 122
6.4 Published LCAs of BECCS 123
6.5 Sensitivity Analysis of Reported Carbon Savings to Key System Parameters 124
6.5.1 Impact of CO2 Capture Efficiency 124
6.5.2 Variation of Energy Requirement Associated with CO2 Capture 125
6.5.3 Variation of Biomass Yield 125
6.6 Conclusions 125
References 126
7 System Characterisation of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Systems 129
Geoffrey P. Hammond
7.1 Introduction 129
7.1.1 Background 129
7.1.2 The Issues Considered 131
7.2 CCS Process Characterisation, Innovation and Deployment 131
7.2.1 CCS Process Characterisation 131
7.2.2 CCS Innovation and Deployment 133
7.3 CCS Options for the United Kingdom 135
7.4 The Sustainability Assessment Context 136
7.4.1.1 The Environmental Pillar 136
7.4.1.2 The Economic Pillar 137
7.4.1.3 The Social Pillar 137
7.5 CCS Performance Metrics 138
7.5.1 Energy Analysis and Metrics 138
7.5.2 Carbon Accounting and Related Parameters 139
7.5.3 Economic Appraisal and Indicators 140
7.6 CCS System Characterisation 141
7.6.1 CO2 Capture 141
7.6.1.1 Technical Exemplars 141
7.6.1.2 Energy Metrics 141
7.6.1.3 Carbon Emissions 142
7.6.1.4 Economic Indicators 145
7.6.2 CO2 Transport and Clustering 147
7.6.3 CO2 Storage 149
7.6.3.1 Storage Options and Capacities 149
7.6.3.2 Storage Site Risks, Environmental Impacts and Monitoring 150
7.6.3.3 Storage Economics 152
7.6.4 Whole CCS Chain Assessment 153
7.7 Concluding Remarks 156
Acknowledgments 157
References 158
8 The System Value of Deploying Bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) in the United Kingdom 163
Geraldine NewtonCross and Dennis Gammer
8.1 Background 163
8.1.1 Why BECCS? 163
8.1.2 Critical Knowledge Gaps 168
8.2 Context 168
8.2.1 Bioenergy 168
8.2.2 Bioenergy with CCS 169
8.3 Progressing our Understanding of the Key Uncertainties Associated with BECCS 170
8.3.1 Can a Sufficient Level of BECCS Be Deployed in the United Kingdom to Support Cost-Effective Decarbonisation Pathways for the United Kingdom out to 2050? 170
8.3.2 What are the Right Combinations of Feedstock, Preprocessing, Conversion and CarbonCapture Technologies to Deploy for Bioenergy Production in the United Kingdom? 174
8.3.2.1 Optimising Feedstock Properties for Future Bioenergy Conversion Technologies 174
8.3.2.2 BECCS Value Chains: What CarbonCapture Technologies Do we Need to Develop? 175
8.3.3 How can we Deliver the Greatest Emissions Savings from Bioenergy and BECCS in the United Kingdom? 176
8.3.4 How Much CO2 Could Be Stored from UK Sources and How Do we Monitor These Stores Efficiently and Safely? 178
8.3.4.1 Storage Potential 178
8.3.4.2 Managing the Risks of Storage 178
8.4 Conclusion: Completing the BECCS Picture 180
8.4.1 Next Steps 180
References 181
Part III BECCS in the Energy System 185
9 The ClimateChange Mitigation Challenge 187
Sarah Mander, Kevin Anderson, Alice Larkin, Clair Gough and Naomi Vaughan
9.1 Introduction 187
9.2 Cumulative Emissions and Atmospheric CO2 Concentration for 2°C Commitments 188
9.3 The Role of BECCS for ClimateChange Mitigation A Summary of BECCS within Integrated Assessment Modelling 190
9.3.1 Key Assumptions 194
9.4 Implications and Consequences of BECCS 194
9.5 Conclusions: Can BECCS Deliver whats Expected of it? 199
References 200
10 The Future for Bioenergy Systems: The Role of BECCS? 205
Gabrial Anandarajah, Olivier Dessens and Will McDowall
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 Methodology 206
10.2.1 TIAMUCL 206
10.2.2 Representation of Bioenergy and CCS Technologies in TIAMUCL 208
10.2.3 Scenario Definitions 209
10.3 Results and Discussions 211
10.3.1 2°C Scenarios With and Without BECCS 211
10.3.2 Sensitivity Around Availability of Sustainable Bioenergy 215
10.3.3 1.5 °C Scenarios 221
10.4 Discussion and Conclusions 224
References 225
11 Policy Frameworks and SupplyChain Accounting 227
Patricia Thornley and Alison Mohr
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 The Origin and Use of SupplyChain Analysis in Bioenergy Systems 228
11.2.1 Rationale for SystemsLevel Evaluation 228
11.2.2 Importance and Significance of Scope of System 230
11.2.3 Importance and Significance of Breadth of Analysis 231
11.3 Policy Options 232
11.3.1 Objectives of BECCS Policy 232
11.3.2 Review of Existing Policy Frameworks 234
11.3.2.1 International Policy Frameworks 234
11.3.2.1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 234
11.3.2.1.2 EU Emissions Trading System 236
11.3.2.1.3 Renewable Energy Directive and Fuel Quality Directive 236
11.3.2.2 National Policy Frameworks in the United Kingdom 237
11.3.2.2.1 Renewables Obligation and Contracts for Difference 237
11.3.2.2.2 Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation 238
11.4 Ensuring Environmental, Economic and Social Sustainability of a BECCS System 238
11.4.1 Environmental Sustainability and System Scope 238
11.4.2 Economic Sustainability and System Scope 240
11.4.3 Social Sustainability and System Scope 241
11.4.4 TradeOffs Between Different Sustainability Components 243
11.5 Governance of BECCS Systems 245
11.6 Conclusions: The Future of BECCS Policy and Governance 247
References 248
12 Social and Ethical Dimensions of BECCS 251
Clair Gough, Leslie Mabon and Sarah Mander
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Fossil Fuels and BECCS 252
12.3 Alternative Approaches 254
12.3.1 Negative Emissions Approaches and CDR 254
12.3.2 Different Mitigation Approaches 256
12.4 Sustainable Decarbonisation 257
12.5 Societal Responses 258
12.6 Justice 262
12.6.1 Distributional Justice 262
12.6.2 Procedural Justice 263
12.6.3 Financial Justice 265
12.6.4 Intergenerational Justice 267
12.6.5 Summary 268
12.7 Summary 269
References 270
13 Unlocking Negative Emissions 277
Clair Gough, Patricia Thornley, Sarah Mander, Naomi Vaughan and Amanda LeaLangton
13.1 Introduction 277
13.2 Summary of Chapters 277
13.3 Unlocking Negative Emissions: SystemLevel Challenges 282
13.3.1 Terminology, Scale and Quantification 282
13.3.2 NonTechnological Challenges 284
13.3.3 Technical Challenges 287
13.4 Can Negative Emissions be Unlocked? 287
13.4.1 Do we Need This Technology? 288
13.4.2 Can it Work? 288
13.4.3 Does the Focus on BECCS Distract From the Imperative to Radically Reduce Demand and Transform the Global Energy System? 288
13.4.4 How Can BECCS Unlock Negative Emissions? 289
13.5 Summing Up 290
References 290
Index 291
